Fuzzy Logic

Overview The reasoning in fuzzy logic is similar to human reasoning. It allows for approximate values and inferences as well as incomplete or ambiguous data (fuzzy data) as opposed to only relying on crisp data (binary yes/no choices). Fuzzy logic is able to process incomplete data and provide approximate solutions to problems other methods find difficult to solve. Terminology used in fuzzy logic not used in other methods are: very high, increasing, somewhat decreased, reasonable and very low. [4] [edit]Degrees of truth Fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic are mathematically similar – both have truth values ranging between 0 and 1 – but conceptually distinct, due to different interpretations—see interpretations of probability theory. Fuzzy logic corresponds to â€Å"degrees of truth†, while probabilistic logic corresponds to â€Å"probability, likelihood†; as these differ, fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic yield different models of the same real-world situations. Both degrees of truth and probabilities range between 0 and 1 and hence may seem similar at first. For example, let a 100 ml glass contain 30 ml of water. Then we may consider two concepts: Empty and Full. The meaning of each of them can be represented by a certain fuzzy set. Then one might define the glass as being 0. 7 empty and 0. 3 full. Note that the concept of emptiness would be subjective and thus would depend on the observer or designer. Another designer might equally well design a set membership function where the glass would be considered full for all values down to 50 ml. It is essential to realize that fuzzy logic uses truth degrees as a mathematical model of the vagueness phenomenon while probability is a mathematical model of ignorance. edit]Applying truth values A basic application might characterize subranges of a continuous variable. For instance, a temperature measurement for anti-lock brakes might have several separate membership functions defining particular temperature ranges needed to control the brakes properly. Each function maps the same temperature value to a truth value in the 0 to 1 range. These truth values can then be used to determine how the brakes should be controlled. Fuzzy logic temperature In this image, the meaning of the expressions cold, warm, and hot is represented by functions mapping a temperature scale. A point on that scale has three â€Å"truth values†Ã¢â‚¬â€one for each of the three functions. The vertical line in the image represents a particular temperature that the three arrows (truth values) gauge. Since the red arrow points to zero, this temperature may be interpreted as â€Å"not hot†. The orange arrow (pointing at 0. 2) may describe it as â€Å"slightly warm† and the blue arrow (pointing at 0. 8) â€Å"fairly cold†. [edit]Linguistic variables While variables in mathematics usually take numerical values, in fuzzy logic applications, the non-numeric linguistic variables are often used to facilitate the expression of rules and facts. 5] A linguistic variable such as age may have a value such as young or its antonym old. However, the great utility of linguistic variables is that they can be modified via linguistic hedges applied to primary terms. The linguistic hedges can be associated with certain functions. [edit]Example Fuzzy set theory defines fuzzy operators on fuzzy sets. The problem in applying this is that the appropriate fuzzy operator may not be known. For this reason, fuzzy logic usually uses IF-THEN rules, or constructs that are equivalent, such as fuzzy associative matrices. Rules are usually expressed in the form: IF variable IS property THEN action For example, a simple temperature regulator that uses a fan might look like this: IF temperature IS very cold THEN stop fan IF temperature IS cold THEN turn down fan IF temperature IS normal THEN maintain level IF temperature IS hot THEN speed up fan There is no â€Å"ELSE† – all of the rules are evaluated, because the temperature might be â€Å"cold† and â€Å"normal† at the same time to different degrees. The AND, OR, and NOT operators of boolean logic exist in fuzzy logic, usually defined as the minimum, maximum, and omplement; when they are defined this way, they are called the Zadeh operators. So for the fuzzy variables x and y: NOT x = (1 – truth(x)) x AND y = minimum(truth(x), truth(y)) x OR y = maximum(truth(x), truth(y)) There are also other operators, more linguistic in nature, called hedges that can be applied. These are generally adverbs such as â€Å"very†, or â€Å"somewhat†, which modify the meaning of a set using a mathematical formula. [edit]Logical analysis In mathematical logic, there are several formal systems of â€Å"fuzzy logic†; most of them belong among so-called t-norm fuzzy logics. edit]Propositional fuzzy logics The most important propositional fuzzy logics are: Monoidal t-norm-based propositional fuzzy logic MTL is an axiomatization of logic where conjunction is defined by a left continuous t-norm, and implication is defined as the residuum of the t-norm. Its models correspond to MTL-algebras that are prelinear commutative bounded integral residuated lattices. Basic propositional fuzzy logic BL is an extension of MTL logic where conjunction is defined by a continuous t-norm, and implication is also defined as the residuum of the t-norm. Its models correspond to BL-algebras. Lukasiewicz fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where standard conjunction is the Lukasiewicz t-norm. It has the axioms of basic fuzzy logic plus an axiom of double negation, and its models correspond to MV-algebras. Godel fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where conjunction is Godel t-norm. It has the axioms of BL plus an axiom of idempotence of conjunction, and its models are called G-algebras. Product fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy logic BL where conjunction is product t-norm. It has the axioms of BL plus another axiom for cancellativity of conjunction, and its models are called product algebras. Fuzzy logic with evaluated syntax (sometimes also called Pavelka's logic), denoted by EVL, is a further generalization of mathematical fuzzy logic. While the above kinds of fuzzy logic have traditional syntax and many-valued semantics, in EVL is evaluated also syntax. This means that each formula has an evaluation. Axiomatization of EVL stems from Lukasziewicz fuzzy logic. A generalization of classical Godel completeness theorem is provable in EVL. edit]Predicate fuzzy logics These extend the above-mentioned fuzzy logics by adding universal and existential quantifiers in a manner similar to the way that predicate logic is created from propositional logic. The semantics of the universal (resp. existential) quantifier in t-norm fuzzy logics is the infimum (resp. supremum) of the truth degrees of the instances of the quantified subformula. [edit]Decidability issues f or fuzzy logic The notions of a â€Å"decidable subset† and â€Å"recursively enumerable subset† are basic ones for classical mathematics and classical logic. Then, the question of a suitable extension of such concepts to fuzzy set theory arises. A first proposal in such a direction was made by E. S. Santos by the notions of fuzzy Turing machine, Markov normal fuzzy algorithm and fuzzy program (see Santos 1970). Successively, L. Biacino and G. Gerla showed that such a definition is not adequate and therefore proposed the following one. U denotes the set of rational numbers in [0,1]. A fuzzy subset s : S [0,1] of a set S is recursively enumerable if a recursive map h : S? N U exists such that, for every x in S, the function h(x,n) is increasing with respect to n and s(x) = lim h(x,n). We say that s is decidable if both s and its complement –s are recursively enumerable. An extension of such a theory to the general case of the L-subsets is proposed in Gerla 2006. The proposed definitions are well related with fuzzy logic. Indeed, the following theorem holds true (provided that the deduction apparatus of the fuzzy logic satisfies some obvious effectiveness property). Theorem. Any axiomatizable fuzzy theory is recursively enumerable. In particular, the fuzzy set of logically true formulas is recursively enumerable in spite of the fact that the crisp set of valid formulas is not recursively enumerable, in general. Moreover, any axiomatizable and complete theory is decidable. It is an open question to give supports for a Church thesis for fuzzy logic claiming that the proposed notion of recursive enumerability for fuzzy subsets is the adequate one. To this aim, further investigations on the notions of fuzzy grammar and fuzzy Turing machine should be necessary (see for example Wiedermann's paper). Another open uestion is to start from this notion to find an extension of Godel’s theorems to fuzzy logic. [edit]Fuzzy databases Once fuzzy relations are defined, it is possible to develop fuzzy relational databases. The first fuzzy relational database, FRDB, appeared in Maria Zemankova's dissertation. Later, some other models arose like the Buckles-Petry model, the Prade-Testemale Model, the Umano-Fukami model or t he GEFRED model by J. M. Medina, M. A. Vila et al. In the context of fuzzy databases, some fuzzy querying languages have been defined, highlighting the SQLf by P. Bosc et al. and the FSQL by J. Galindo et al. These languages define some structures in order to include fuzzy aspects in the SQL statements, like fuzzy conditions, fuzzy comparators, fuzzy constants, fuzzy constraints, fuzzy thresholds, linguistic labels and so on. [edit]Comparison to probability Fuzzy logic and probability are different ways of expressing uncertainty. While both fuzzy logic and probability theory can be used to represent subjective belief, fuzzy set theory uses the concept of fuzzy set membership (i. e. , how much a variable is in a set), and probability theory uses the concept of subjective probability (i. . , how probable do I think that a variable is in a set). While this distinction is mostly philosophical, the fuzzy-logic-derived possibility measure is inherently different from the probability measure, hence they are not directly equivalent. However, many statisticians are persuaded by the work of Bruno de Finetti that only one kind of mathematical uncertainty is needed and thus fuzzy logic is unnecessary. On the other hand, Bart Kosko argues[citation needed] that probability is a subtheory of fuzzy logic, as probability only handles one kind of uncertainty. He also claims[citation needed] to have proven a derivation of Bayes' theorem from the concept of fuzzy subsethood. Lotfi Zadeh argues that fuzzy logic is different in character from probability, and is not a replacement for it. He fuzzified probability to fuzzy probability and also generalized it to what is called possibility theory. (cf. [6]) [edit]See also Logic portal Thinking portal Artificial intelligence Artificial neural network Defuzzification Dynamic logic Expert system False dilemma Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis Fuzzy associative matrix Fuzzy classification Fuzzy concept Fuzzy Control Language Fuzzy Control System Fuzzy electronics Fuzzy mathematics Fuzzy set Fuzzy subalgebra FuzzyCLIPS expert system Machine learning Multi-valued logic Neuro-fuzzy Paradox of the heap Rough set Type-2 fuzzy sets and systems Vagueness Interval finite element Noise-based logic [edit]Notes ^ Novak, V. , Perfilieva, I. and Mockor, J. (1999) Mathematical principles of fuzzy logic Dodrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-8595-0 ^ â€Å"Fuzzy Logic†. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2006-07-23. Retrieved 2008-09-29. ^ Zadeh, L. A. (1965). Fuzzy sets†, Information and Control 8 (3): 338–353. ^ James A. O'Brien; George M. Marakas (2011). Management Information Systesm (10th ed. ). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 431. ^ Zadeh, L. A. et al. 1996 Fuzzy Sets, Fuzzy Logic, Fuzzy Systems, World Scientific Press, ISBN 9810224214 ^ Novak, V. Are fuzzy sets a reasonable tool for modeling vague phenomena? , Fuzzy Sets and Systems 156 ( 2005) 341—348. [edit]Bibliography Von Altrock, Constantin (1995). Fuzzy logic and NeuroFuzzy applications explained. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 0-13-368465-2. Arabacioglu, B. C. (2010). â€Å"Using fuzzy inference system for architectural space analysis†. Applied Soft Computing 10 (3): 926–937. Biacino, L. ; Gerla, G. (2002). â€Å"Fuzzy logic, continuity and effectiveness†. Archive for Mathematical Logic 41 (7): 643–667. doi:10. 1007/s001530100128. ISSN 0933-5846. Cox, Earl (1994). The fuzzy systems handbook: a practitioner's guide to building, using, maintaining fuzzy systems. Boston: AP Professional. ISBN 0-12-194270-8. Gerla, Giangiacomo (2006). â€Å"Effectiveness and Multivalued Logics†. Journal of Symbolic Logic 71 (1): 137–162. doi:10. 2178/jsl/1140641166. ISSN 0022-4812. Hajek, Petr (1998). Metamathematics of fuzzy logic. Dordrecht: Kluwer. ISBN 0792352386. Hajek, Petr (1995). â€Å"Fuzzy logic and arithmetical hierarchy†. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 3 (8): 359–363. doi:10. 1016/0165-0114(94)00299-M. ISSN 0165-0114. Halpern, Joseph Y. (2003). Reasoning about uncertainty. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-08320-5. Hoppner, Frank; Klawonn, F. ; Kruse, R. ; Runkler, T. (1999). Fuzzy cluster analysis: methods for classification, data analysis and image recognition. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-98864-2. Ibrahim, Ahmad M. (1997). Introduction to Applied Fuzzy Electronics. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-206400-6. Klir, George J. ; Folger, Tina A. (1988). Fuzzy sets, uncertainty, and information. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-345984-5. Klir, George J. ; St Clair, Ute H. ; Yuan, Bo (1997). Fuzzy set theory: foundations and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0133410587. Klir, George J. ; Yuan, Bo (1995). Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic: theory and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 0-13-101171-5. Kosko, Bart (1993). Fuzzy thinking: the new science of fuzzy logic. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-8021-X. Kosko, Bart; Isaka, Satoru (July 1993). â€Å"Fuzzy Logic†. Scientific American 269 (1): 76–81. doi:10. 1038/scientificamerican0793-76. Montagna, F. (2001). â€Å"Three complexity problems in quantified fuzzy logic†. Studia Logica 68 (1): 143–152. doi:10. 1023/A:1011958407631. ISSN 0039-3215. Mundici, Daniele; Cignoli, Roberto; D'Ottaviano, Itala M. L. (1999). Algebraic foundations of many-valued reasoning. Dodrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-6009-5. Novak, Vilem (1989). Fuzzy Sets and Their Applications. Bristol: Adam Hilger. ISBN 0-85274-583-4. Novak, Vilem (2005). â€Å"On fuzzy type theory†. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 149 (2): 235–273. doi:10. 1016/j. fss. 2004. 03. 027. Novak, Vilem; Perfilieva, Irina; Mockor, Jiri (1999). Mathematical principles of fuzzy logic. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 0-7923-8595-0. Onses, Richard (1996). Second Order Experton: A new Tool for Changing Paradigms in Country Risk Calculation. ISBN 8477195587. Onses, Richard (1994). Determination de l? incertitude inherente aux investissements en Amerique Latine sur la base de la theorie des sous ensembles flous. Barcelona. ISBN 8447508811. Passino, Kevin M. ; Yurkovich, Stephen (1998). Fuzzy control. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 020118074X. Pedrycz, Witold; Gomide, Fernando (2007). Fuzzy systems engineering: Toward Human-Centerd Computing. Hoboken: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978047178857-7. Pu, Pao Ming; Liu, Ying Ming (1980). â€Å"Fuzzy topology. I. Neighborhood structure of a fuzzy point and Moore-Smith convergence†. Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications 76 (2): 571–599. doi:10. 1016/0022-247X(80)90048-7. ISSN 0022-247X Santos, Eugene S. (1970). â€Å"Fuzzy Algorithms†. Information and Control 17 (4): 326–339. doi:10. 1016/S0019-9958(70)80032-8. Scarpellini, Bruno (1962). â€Å"Die Nichaxiomatisierbarkeit des unendlichwertigen Pradikatenkalkuls von Lukasiewicz†. Journal of Symbolic Logic (Association for Symbolic Logic) 27 (2): 159–170. doi:10. 2307/2964111. ISSN 0022-4812. JSTOR 2964111. Steeb, Willi-Hans (2008). The Nonlinear Workbook: Chaos, Fractals, Cellular Automata, Neural Networks, Genetic Algorithms, Gene Expression Programming, Support Vector Machine, Wavelets, Hidden Markov Models, Fuzzy Logic with C++, Java and SymbolicC++ Programs: 4edition. World Scientific. ISBN 981-281-852-9. Wiedermann, J. (2004). â€Å"Characterizing the super-Turing computing power and efficiency of classical fuzzy Turing machines†. Theor. Comput. 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The Fundamentals of Different Persuasive Essay Topics You Will be Able to Benefit From Beginning Right Away

The Fundamentals of Different Persuasive Essay Topics You Will be Able to Benefit From Beginning Right Away The Pain of Different Persuasive Essay Topics Thanks to the correct selection of presentation style and a thorough understanding of the goals you wish to accomplish in your essay, there are many categories essay themes may be broken into. Different essay types need various questions. On the opposite side, acquiring a list of good persuasive essay topics is inadequate. The multiple topics might be found, for instance, in the dissertation abstracts international database. Other folks believe that it improves creativity and productivity at work. Possessing very good research abilities and selecting a great topic is essential. Our crew of professional writers with the crucial experience and writing skills is always prepared to fulfill your demands and exceed your expectations. Details of Different Persuasive Essay Topics Recent argumentative essay topics that are related to society is going to do. Persuasive essays share a good deal of resemblance with argumentative essays. They are also known as argumentative essays. Argumentative or persuasive essays are definitely the most typical kinds of essay that students are expected to write. There are lots of aspects about a sport which can be argued in an essay. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. You are a genuine expert in regards to persuasive essay topics. Likewise, a professor could be in a position to provide advice about the perfect essay topics. Ok, I Think I Understand Different Persuasive Essay Topics, Now Tell Me About Different Persuasive Essay Topics! If you're in a college and wish to compose an argumentative essay, you should decide on a subject of high importance. A student ought to keep in contact with the hottest trends and know which persuasive essay topics are related to sound convincing in regards to defending personal opinions. Since you can see, a lot of the topics listed are new and deal with the present issues happening in the World today. Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's critical to at all times be critically considering the world around us. The main aim of topic choice for a proposal essay is to show the idea can be put into place in practice. It's important to understand that essay topics are just basic ideas that leave you pondering a notion that might be a huge deal to another person. For students, if you're unfamiliar with an argumentative essay, bear in mind they are written to convince readers about a certain focus or point of view. Bear in mind that you could make funny argumentative essays if you do a few things. Argumentative essay is about arguing and debating on a subject, which is debatable. Arguments should be constructed. They always take place in a certain context. Finding the most suitable arguments will allow you to prove your p oint and win. Consider your essay is limited regarding word count. In this kind of situation, it's more convenient to locate ready-made essays and use them as an example. Persuasive essays are a fantastic approach to encourage the reader to check at a particular topic in a different light. An argumentative essay is a certain kind of academic writing. Life After Different Persuasive Essay Topics Then you're interested in figuring out how to compose persuasive paper. Begin with general subjects that you are conversant with then narrow down to a certain topic. When you're at college or school, one of the principal tasks you need to do is write essays. To compose a strong argumentative essay, students should start by familiarizing themselves with a number of the common, and frequently conflicting, positions on the research topic so they can write an educated paper.

Self-Disclosure in Relationships - 3607 Words

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At other times communicators can spend too much time at these personal levels. These levels are as follows: Clichà ©s: Clichà ©s are ritualized, stock responses to social situations-virtually the opposite of disclosure. Although they sound superficial, clichà ©s can also serve as codes for messages we don’t usually express directly, such as â€Å"I want to acknowledge your presence† accompanied by Self –Disclosure 4 a different set of nonverbal cues, a clichà © can say â€Å"I don’t want to be impolite, but you’d better stay away from me now.† Whatever valuable functions they may serve, it’s clear that clichà ©s don’t qualify as self-disclosure. Facts: Not all facts qualify as self-disclosure. They must fit the criteria of being intentional, significant, and not otherwise known. Facts can be meaningful in themselves, but they also have a greater significance in a relationship. 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Project Managment Case Studies - 214937 Words

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Healthcare Finance in The United States of America Free Essays

In United States the Congress had passed the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003 or MMA and with this imposed a stoppage for 18 months on the starting of new physician owned specialty hospitals. At the same time, they also wanted to know the position regarding certain matters of physician owned heart, orthopedic and surgical specialty hospitals through MedPAC. The team visited sites, made legal analysis and met the share owners in these hospitals and finally presented a report to the Congress. We will write a custom essay sample on Healthcare Finance in The United States of America or any similar topic only for you Order Now It had also gone through the cost reports received from Medicare and inpatient claims of 2002, which was the most recent at that time. This will naturally form the basis of such hospitals being permitted or not. (Physician-owned specialty hospitals) The findings of this committee showed that:- Physician owned hospitals generally treated patients who had less severe problems and concentrated on specific diagnosis related groups and the reason for both of this was that these were expected to be more profitable than other patients. These hospitals do not treat as many Medicaid patients as community hospitals. Regarding the costs of patients in these hospitals for the patients, the Medicare patients did not get benefits of lower costs though the inpatients had shorter periods of stay. There was no appreciable impact of physician owned specialty hospitals on the community hospitals as seen in 2002, and there was also no impact on the financial performance of the community hospitals. Most of the differences in profitability can be rectified by improving the prospective patient system for inpatients that are made by Medicare. Thus according to the findings there are not major differences between the community hospitals and physician owned specialty hospitals in terms of costs or capability for services. (Physician-owned specialty hospitals) Differences among types of hospitals: We shall make comparison of the hospitals in India and USA. In India, apart from the government hospitals, there are a number of large hospitals run by trusts or large corporations. In the city of Bombay or Mumbai, the hospitals named Jaslok or Hinduja are run by trusts and Wockhardt Heart Hospital is run by a major pharmaceutical company. Even when the hospital has been promoted by a physician, still the hospital is run like a corporation as is seen in the case of Apollo Hospitals. There is now a new hospital named as Asian Heart Hospital in Bombay which has been promoted by a physician team and they have a large stake in the hospital. The team of physician is led by one Mr. Panda who is now the CEO of the hospital. These physicians have all invested their own funds, and to get more funds, they have even asked for more contributions from other physicians who are now not resident in India. The hospital is the result of a plan by these physicians in 1993-94. The hospital took about 10 years to complete. Thus one should realize that a hospital takes a long time to take shape up. (Doctors in arms) The biggest problems in the management of hospitals come from physicians and renowned physicians are sought for empanelment by hospitals. The physicians then continually force the hospitals to upgrade their infrastructure and also charge heavy fees from the patients. At the end of the services by the physicians, it is they who get the biggest returns. It is also difficult to retain the physicians as they leave at the earliest opportunity, and this statement is from one of the promoters of the hospital, GW Capital. They are now investing money in the concept of physician managed private hospitals. This resulted in its investment of Rs 150 million or about 3 million dollars in buying a 26 percent stake in another hospital group in Hyderabad, in 2000 called the Care Group. That group has expanded very fast and now has over a 1000 beds in its operations in six centers. (Doctors in arms) Thus the costs of the hospitals will require about 12 million dollars for a 1000 bed operation. At the same time, not all hospitals are made with money in mind and there are hospitals in Chennai or Madras in India which have 150 physicians, 500 nurses and 371 Para-medical staff. The entire team works within a budget of Rs 120 million or 2.4 million dollars. (Healing Ministry of the Madras Diocesan Medical Board) This hospital is run by a religious mission and its objective is to provide service to the people and this hospital does not want to make money, but run at break even costs. In United States, during 2002 there were 48 hospitals found to be physician owned hospitals. Of them 12 were heart hospitals, 25 were orthopedic hospitals and 11 were surgical hospitals. These hospitals are generally very small with average capacities of orthopedic hospitals being 16 beds, the surgical specialty hospitals being 14 beds and heart hospitals are the largest with average capacity being 52 beds. The general conditions of these hospitals are not full fledged as they do not have emergency departments, whereas 93 percent of the community hospitals have emergency departments. The reason for existence of these hospitals is the physician control over the hospitals. (Physician-owned specialty hospitals) At the same time, one of these hospitals has been named as one of country’s top 100 heart hospitals. (Parkwest Medical Center) Financial position of private hospitals: According to available reports, the private hospitals are in a position to take on patients who are capable of paying for them, and not take on patients who have to depend on managed care organizations. This increases the incomes of the hospitals by 20 to 50 percent. This reduces the cost of a bypass surgery at one of the hospitals in India, Care to about Rs 80,000 or $1,700. The cost in India is higher by about 30 to 40 percent in corporate hospitals. Even the new hospital, Asian Heart has predicted a cash break even during the second year of operations, and by the end of the second year it expects to pay a 15 percent dividend to the investor. Thus on an investment of $50 million, the returns would be $7.5 million from the second year. (Doctors in arms) The position in United States is the same, and in spite of some private specialty hospitals not having made any distributions to stockholders, the study showed that the margin in these hospitals was about 13 percent in 2002 as compared to 3 to 6 percent that was seen for community hospitals. (Physician-owned specialty hospitals) The advantages of physician owned specialty hospitals: To find this aspect out, there were discussions with the physicians who were investing in these hospitals. The cardiologists and surgeons want to admit their patients, perform the required procedures and have the patients recover with minimum disturbance. They believe that community hospitals cannot match their services as those hospitals have a variety of services and missions that they have to undertake. The direct control by the physicians help to increase productivity through less disturbances to the schedules in operating room which come from the emergency cases that come about, decreasing the down time between operations between two different surgeries and this is due to cleaning the operating room more efficiently, increased ability to work between two operating rooms even when the operating rooms are blocked due to some other work and better efficiencies through direct control of operating room staff. As mentioned earlier, they also like to form specialty hospitals as they have increases in income. There is some increase due to productivity, but they are able to collect a share of the profits from the facility for themselves and other associated physicians. They concentrate on providing services that are profitable, on treating patients who are less sick and thus more profitable. (Physician-owned specialty hospitals) Even in India the same situation exists and most of the physicians who have now started developing hospitals have been working together earlier, and one of the main aims is to remove the pressure from managed health care systems that they have to face otherwise. There is now a distinct change in the formation of hospitals and new hospitals are being formed by physicians. The total costs have been discussed to some extent, but without the participation of physicians, the hospitals are unlikely to be successful. How to cite Healthcare Finance in The United States of America, Essay examples

Resistance Does Not Necessarily Involve Violence free essay sample

In 1 926 entered Munich University and gained a P. . D in Political economics. BMW: You have recently released you memoir, My Forty Years as a Diplomat, about career. What inspired you to write this book? Fend: After my retirement in 1973 from my career in the Foreign Ministry in China, reflected upon what I had achieved in my life. Forty years is a long time, and I wanted to write about the historical events that occurred during my career, as well as my personal struggles. BMW: What do you think the biggest personal struggle was during your career?Fend: was the Chinese consul-general in Vienna from 1938-1940, because I was fluent in German. This was during the Holocaust, and many Jews wanted to immigrate to a safe country. No one would grant them visas to escape. Chin lie, the Chinese ambassador in Berlin, told me not to give the Jews visas because he wished to be friendly to Germany. I struggled to choose between listening to my senior and doing what I believed to be right and risking my career. In the end, listened to my heart. I defied Chin lies orders and gave Visas for Shanghai, China to any Jew who asked. Called it a liberal visa policy.BMW: You put your whole career and life at stake in order to save as many Jews as you could. Why did you do this? Fend: Because the Jews had no other way to escape. You did not need a visa to get into China, but a visa was the only way for a Jew to get out of Germany and escape concentration camps and the Holocaust. As I said before, no other country would give visas. I felt a natural compassion and want to help these people by giving them a way to escape. I was in a position where I could aid people, and I chose to do so. God didnt bless me with such a high ranking position for no reason.He gifted me so I could benefit and help others, which in this case was the Jews. It is estimated that I saved two thousand Jews. This makes me proud, that I helped people. BMW: Tell me about what the Chinese Government accused you of. Fend: I have been denied a pension because the Government has accused me of spending about USED 300 of embassy money. This is not true, and I believe that the motive for this lie is because I received a demerit in my file for issuing visas to Jews. The Government wished to discredit me, and has done BMW: Well, thank you for your time Fend.No wonder you are described as having a compassionate head. Fend: Thank you. Part B Resistance does not necessarily involve violence but it always involves hooch. With reference to the above statement, explain the methods used by Jews to resist Nazi policies and practices during the Holocaust (1939 -? 1945) The Holocaust was the systematic genocide of Jews and other undesirables by the Nazis in German-occupied areas of Europe. Some Nazi practices were forcing Jews to live in concentration camps or ghettos, as well as murdering them in numerous ways.Policies included the Numerous Laws, which stripped the rights of Jews. Resistance against these activities did not necessarily involve violence; there were both violent and passive ways in which the Jews chose to resist Nazi policies and practices. Many Jewish people chose to use violent opposition as resistance to the actions Of the Germans. This was undertaken in both ghettos and concentration camps. In a number of ghettos, Jewish communities used violence resistance against Nazi activities. Source A is an account of Jewish defiance in the Warsaw ghetto against the Nazis 1 .The Nazis wished to deport the Jews to Trebling extermination camp and liquidate the ghetto, and the source demonstrates the Jewish opposition to the genocide of their race. Resistance such as this happened in other Jewish ghettos, with communities manufacturing home-made weapons or smuggling them to revolt against the Germans. Some also escaped into forests to engage in partisan warfare against the Germans. Violent resistance in ghettos was a prominent way in which Jews demonstrated their opposition for the activities of the Nazis. Violent resistance by the Jews against the German forces also occurred in concentration camps. At some concentration and extermination camps including Trebling extermination camp and Auschwitz, there were staged uprisings against the Nazis. This was in opposition to the Nazi practices of underfeeding, overworking, abusing and murdering Jews. In most cases, weapons were smuggled by Jews from munitions factories at camps, although grenades and arms were sometimes hand-made. The intention of these efforts Was to kill the Nazi guards and escape to freedom.Many Jews were killed during these resistance efforts due to the superior weapons and numbers of the Germans. While the majority of the uprisings did not succeed, many led to loss of German life and the destruction to some parts of the camps. Notably, the October 1943 uprising at Sob ¶r extermination camp forced the camp to close, saving many Jews. Violent uprisings at incineration camps were resistance to inhumane Nazi practices. Many Jews chose to resist Nazi procedures in passive methods. These involved contradicting policies which controlled the Jews food, religion and freedom of speech.Other methods of resistance were hiding from the Germans, and educating Jewish children. Smuggling food in ghettos was a prominent way that Jews resisted Nazi oppression during the Holocaust. The Nazis believed that a ration of 1 80 grams of food a day could starve the Jewish population to death. The Jews resisted this attempt by acquiring food through foraging in bins and backyards or smuggling. Smuggling was mainly conducted by small children who slipped through the ghetto walls to find food. Some Jewish people worked outside ghettos in factories, and would smuggle food in their clothes, although many were caught.The punishment for any unauthorized means of acquiring food was instant execution. The Nazis ineffectively tried to prevent this by surrounding ghettos with high walls, sometimes topped with glass spikes to prevent people from climbing over them. Despite obtaining extra food being illegal, many Jews did this as a non-violent defiance Of German authorities. In most ghettos, the Nazis banned religious activities. Prayer and ceremonies were conducted secretly in attics and bases while people stood watch. This was resistance against Nazi prohibitions that intended to dehumidifies the Jews.Source B states that Many Orthodox Jews who opposed the use of physical force viewed prayer and religious observances as the truest form of resistance. 2 This demonstrates the choice of many Jews to resist Nazi practices and maintain their spiritual and cultural identity. Punishment for this activity, if discovered, could involve beating or death for any participants. Practicing Judaism demonstrated refusal by the Jewish community to have heir spirits broken and submit to the German oppression. Continuing religious practices was a way in which the Jewish passively resisted the Nazi regime. The documentation of life in ghettos was another method in which the Jewish community resisted the Nazi regime. Many ghettos formed groups which stored reports and diaries that chronicled living conditions in the ghettos. Some also preserved Nazi anti-Semitism decrees and posters, as well as anti- Nazi writings. The largest archive was Ones Shabby, or the Ringleader Archive, of Warsaw ghetto, which had over 25000 sheets saved. Source C epics historians going through the contents of the Ringleader archive upon its discovery.It demonstrates the valuable insight that the Jews documentation provided on the restrictions imposed by the Nazis on the Jews. This was despite the Nazis efforts to annihilate the group from living memory. Through doing this, the Jewish community consciously attempted to preserve the history of their culture, and ordeals during the Holocaust. The rights of Jews were severely restricted by Nazi policies and practices. Many Jews chose to passively resist these conducts while confined in ghettos in German-occupied Europe. There were many ways in which the Jews chose to resist the activities of the Nazis during the Holocaust.

South Africa Essays (2318 words) - Provinces Of South Africa

South Africa South Africa South Africa is the southernmost part of the continent of Africa. It is one of the earth's oldest and stable landmasses. This is why there are no folded mountain ranges. The only mountain ranges that are similar to that kind of range, would be those in the southern tip. This is where the north-south ranges meet an east-west range in the Paarl area. The rest of the country has been slightly pitted so that interior lakes like the Okovango Delta have no outlet to the sea. Most of the country is at an elevation of 3,000 to 6,500 feet above sea level. South Africa lies north of 35 S latitude and is surrounded on three sides by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. Two large high-pressure areas control the weather in South Africa brought over by both of the oceans, in the winter a belt of depressions moves northward to bring rains to the south. During the summer moist tropical air masses migrate southward, bringing frequent thunderstorms. There are not many rivers in South Africa, and those few are not navigable. The unpredictable rainfall makes drought in the areas a very common problem. The towns and cities cannot depend on a consistent source of water for the year. Water supplies for both the town and the country must be very well planned, so there is no drought. Wells are usually the source for irrigation and general water supply in the countryside, however the urban and industrialized areas need the use of dams. On the major rivers of South Africa it is easy to see many of the plus 360 dams that have been built. These are easily found on the Orange, Vaal, Limpopo, and the Tugela rivers. Many of the dams provide hydroelectric power to the national electricity grid. Located on the upper Orange River are two of the largest dams in South Africa. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was developed to supply water to the Transvaal industrial area by mid 1990's. Even though there are an abundant amount of dams in the coun try, the populations of both city and town must persevere intermittent water rationing. In spite of the amount of land that South Africa encompasses, surprisingly only 15% of the land is arable. Even so, South Africa exports any of its crops including wine, fruits, vegetables, corn, and cane sugar. Dairy and beef cattle are raised in many different areas, including sheep and Angora goats to provide wool and mohair. Natural vegetation has been changed greatly through overgrazing, seasonal burning, and introducing new species. Subtropical forests nurtured by spring and summer rains have been displaced by grasslands, exotic trees; east of the Drakensburg escarpment. Only one area of the Southern cape has a perennial rainfall, the Knysna and George districts. This rainfall has a true hardwood temperate forest in which the species such as stinkwood, sneezewood, yellowwood, and ironwood survive. Farther westward, the natural tree life fades and the grassy upland, otherwise known as the Highveld, prevails. As one travels further west the rainfall decreases and the thorn-tree c ountry begins. Thin grasses and sparsely covered areas become more prevalent. These areas are commonly called the Kalahari Desert and the bare Namib desert. The Western Cape province has a Mediterranean type of climate, referred to as a summer dry climate. The vegetation is found to be shrubby with waxy leaves, and pine and oak trees. Northwest of this region are low scrub, cactus, and aloes. These plants dominate the areas of Little and Great Karroo. It is quite obvious that the areas change very much by each mile because of the unsteady amount of precipitation, and South Africa's climate. Gold mining produces as by-product called uraninite. This product is then converted into uranium oxide for local use and export. Gem-quality and industrial diamonds are both mined in large quantities and sold on world markets. Significant deposits of iron ore are mined for local use and export. Immeasurable reserves of bituminous coal are exploited for thermo-electric power and for worldwide export. There is a singular nuclear power plant at Koeburg that supplies the west with electric power, because this area is very far from the coalfields. South Africa does have